很多人聽說過奧數,卻對 " 奧哲 " 知之甚少。
據文匯報報道,前兩天,國際哲學奧林匹克競賽(IPO,以下簡稱 " 奧哲 ")上海項目組委會正式成立,這在我國尚屬首次。
根據合作協議,此次組委會由上海市校外教育協會等四方合作組成,針對哲學有興趣的高中學生開展相關活動,包括在高中生中開展基於 " 奧哲 " 的學生哲學社團、哲學 IP、哲學課程建設、師生課程培訓、夏冬令營集訓、參加區域及國際賽事學生選拔等。
國際哲學奧林匹克競賽上海項目組委會正式成立
設立於 1993 年的 " 奧哲 " 是一項面向高中生的哲學競賽,由聯合國教科文組織(UNESCO)支持,國際哲學團體聯合會(FISP)主辦,至今已舉辦過 25 屆。
作為一項國際人文學科競賽,奧哲的競賽規則與其他學科競賽基本相同:
參賽國傢可派出兩名參賽學生,主辦國可派出十名參賽學生;競賽時間一般為四至五天,參賽者需從四個題目選擇其一,並在四小時內以英文、法文、德文或西班牙文作論文一篇,但不能是其母語或本國的官方語言。最終,論文將由隨隊導師和國際哲學團體聯合會的代表共同評核,決出金獎、銀獎、銅獎、優異獎。
長期以來,中國高中生對這項國際賽事的瞭解和關註並不多,此前也並無官方組織管理。迄今為止,參加過 " 奧哲 " 的中國學生隻有四屆六人。
但近年來," 奧哲 " 在國內的關註度正在逐漸提升,去年第 25 屆 " 奧哲 " 在荷蘭鹿特丹舉行,便有兩名中國高二學生參賽,一位來自上海,一位正在美國求學,最後在 90 多名參賽者中,他們分別位列 30 多名、50 多名。如今,這位來自上海的學生今年已被美國排名前 20 的愛默裡大學錄取。
第 26 屆 " 奧哲 " 將於今年 5 月在歐洲黑山共和國舉行,目前國內自由報名學生已達 20 至 30 人。
附歷年真題(中文版)
1993 年
與風物景色相較,傢鄉更是一種心智情感狀態。(巴什拉)
孩童是歷史悠久、存續至今的古物。(巴什拉)
我們所見的每樣東西都可能與我們所見的不同。(維特根斯坦)
沒有 " 當前眼下 " 就不會有時間;沒有時間就不會有 " 當前眼下 "。(亞裡士多德)
1995 年
每個人都是一個別的、跟他自己不同的人,沒有人是他自己。(海德格爾)
實際上,要認為我們自己不存在是不可能的。(烏納穆諾)
我們是否應該立足於這樣一個前提:無論在何種情形下,一個人都不允許做不公正的事;或者,我們是否應該認為不公正的事在某些情形下是被允許的?(柏拉圖)
做一個哲學傢意味著無時無刻都在旅行;哲學中的問題比這些問題的答案對哲學更加不可或缺。(雅斯貝爾斯)
1996 年
沒有什麼是千真萬確的,任何事情都有發生的可能。(尼采)
這個世界的邪惡總是源於無知;如果不是被賦予知識和洞察力,善意可以導致與惡意所導致的等量的傷害。(加繆)
你語言的界限就是你生活現實的界限。(維特根斯坦)
那麼請依此行動:把你自身的人性,以及所有其他人身上的人性作為一種目的,而永遠不要作為一種手段來對待。(康德)
1997 年
哲學是一種科學嗎?
沒有強制力的公義是無能為力的;缺乏公義的強制力是暴虐的、壓迫性的。(帕斯卡爾)
為真理本身而尋求真理 , 這樣的觀點在我們實用主義者看來難以理解。我們研究一件事,其目的不能被看做是為瞭發現真理。相反,其目的是為瞭人們能達成一致——關於該做什麼 , 想要達到什麼結果 , 以及藉什麼手段達到這些結果。…… 我們能對事物作出的描述都是與我們的目的性相一致的。…… 我們 所必須知曉的隻是是否存在與這種描述相抵牾的、對實現我們的目的更有用的描述。(理查德 · 羅蒂,《相對主義:發現與發明》)
1999 年
我們不可能構想出哪怕一件東西是本身為善 , 而不需要任何界定的。在這個世界 , 或者即使在這個世界之外 , 我們都不可能構想出哪怕一件這樣的東西。隻除瞭善意。(康德)
欲望是人之為人的本質(斯賓諾莎)
我們所稱之為 " 規律 " 的都是假設或猜測 , 這些假設或猜測總是某個更大的理論體系的一部分,因此,它們永遠都不能孤立地被證實為真或為偽。(卡爾 · 波普爾)
知識是力量嗎 ?
2000 年
時間不是某種自足自主存在的東西 …… 因此 , 時間是一種屬於(人類)直覺的、純粹主觀的狀態 …… 離開瞭主體 , 時間什麼都不是。(康德,《純粹理性批判》)
從自然狀態過渡到文明社會,這個過程在人身上導致瞭一種重要變化;它把公正作為一種行為法則,來替代本能的位置,這賦予人的行為一種前所未有的道德性質。(盧梭,《社會契約論》)
從單細胞變形蟲到人類這樣一個過程,在哲學傢眼中顯然是一種進步——雖然我們無法獲知單細胞變形蟲是否會同意這種看法。(羅素)
所有人類依其本性都渴望知識。(亞裡士多德,《形而上學》)
2001 年
良知的法則從習俗而來 , 我們虛偽地宣稱它們得自於天性。(蒙田,《隨筆集》)
如果我們把無限制的寬容延展,使它甚至適用於那些不寬容的人;如果我們不做好準備對抗不寬容者的攻擊,維護一個寬容的社會,那麼,寬容者將被消滅,隨之寬容也被消滅。(卡爾 · 波普爾,《開放社會及其敵人》)
我隻須問我自己我想要做什麼,每樣我憑感覺認為好的就是好的,每樣我憑感覺認為壞的就是壞的 ……(盧梭)。
由此,顯而易見,當沒有一種勢力涉及到所有人,使他們全都心存敬畏,他們就處於那種被稱之為戰爭的狀態;在這種狀態中,人人彼此為敵。(霍佈斯,《利維坦》)
2002 年
那麼,你想要我們對我們先前對公正的人所下的定義加一個補充。我們先前說 , 對朋友行善舉,對敵人行惡事,這樣是公正的;可是現在,我們要加上說 : 如果朋友是好人,對他行善舉是公正的,如果敵人是壞人,對他行惡事是公正的 ? (柏拉圖,《理想國》)
那些不能牢記過去的人註定會使過去重復發生。(喬治 · 桑塔耶拿,《理性生活》)
但是,要能夠說一個點是黑色或白色 , 我必須首先知道在什麼條件下,一個點被稱作白色或黑色 ; 為瞭能夠說:"p" 為真(或為偽), 我必須確切知道在什麼條件下,我稱 "p" 為真 , 並由此來確定這個提議的意思。(維特根斯坦,《邏輯哲學論》)
這是又一個吊詭命題,但作為真實的絕對存在,上帝必須也是撒旦。隻有這樣,上帝才能被稱為是真的全知全能。…… 絕對性的上帝必須在其自身中包含全然否定,必須是那個陷入終極的惡的上帝。(西田幾多郎,《虛無和宗教的世界觀》)
2003 年
良知的法則從習俗而來,我們虛偽地宣稱它們得自於天性。(蒙田,《隨筆集》)
關於公共領域的和平在哪些條件下之為可能,哲學傢提出瞭相關定理;為從事戰爭而裝備起來的城邦應該參照這些定理來吸取信息和得到指導。(康德,《永久和平論》)
我們能在自己身上察覺到這種進攻性,我們有充分理由假定其他人 [ 也 ] 有這種進攻性;這種進攻性影響我們與鄰居的關系,使人類文明別無選擇,而必須付出如此高昂的能量消耗。這種與生俱來的、人與人之間的相互敵視使文明社會無時不處在解體的威脅下。(佛洛依德,《文明及其缺憾》)
2004 年
常識所用來反對自由的一個重要觀點在於它提醒我們一無所能。我們做不到隨心所欲地改變我們的境況;正相反,我們似乎連我們自己都沒有能力改變。我不是自由的——連逃脫我的階級、國傢、傢庭對我的命定,我都不是自由的;積攢我自己的力量或運道,我也不是自由的;克服最微不足道的口腹之欲或習慣,我也不是自由的。(薩特,《存在與虛無》)
必須批判地反思對真理的希求——讓我們這樣來定義我們所要做的:這一次,真理的價值必須經由實驗而受到質疑 ……(尼采,《論道德的譜系》)
事實上,歷史不屬於我們,而是我們屬於歷史。(漢斯 - 格奧爾格 · 伽達默爾,《真理與方法》)
科學需要哲學嗎?
2005 年
如果我必須在背叛我的國傢和背叛朋友之間做選擇,我希望我該擁有背叛我的國傢的勇氣。(愛德華 · 摩根 · 福斯特)
當今 , 真理分散在很多話語體系中,這些話語體系不再能被安排成一種高下的等級關系。然而,在任何一個這樣的話語中,我們都在頑強地尋找能夠說服所有人的卓識和洞見。(尤爾根 · 哈貝馬斯)
享樂主義、悲觀主義、實用主義、快樂說——在估量事物價值的時候 , 這些體系都考慮到伴隨這些事物而來的快感或痛感,那就是說 , 這些體系所依照的是所有那些非核心的條件或事實, [ 由此 ] 它們被看做不夠深刻、天真幼稚。任何具有建設性的心智情感的人,任何具有藝術傢良知的人,都隻能帶著反諷和悲憫,在一定距離之外來看這種現象。(尼采)
語言是一個諸多路徑的迷宮。從一個方向來,你知道路;從另一個方向來到同一個地方 , 你就不再知道路瞭。(維特根斯坦)
2006 年
要瞭解一樣東西 , 我們必須愛它;要愛一樣東西,我們必須瞭解它。(西田幾多郎)
在很多情況下——雖然不是在所有情況下——我們所使用的 " 意義 " 一詞可以這樣定義:一個詞的意義是它在語言中的用法。(維特根斯坦)
哲學傢們隻是用不同的方式解釋世界,問題在於改變世界。(馬克思)
簡而言之,人的行為從來不是自由的;它們總是他的脾性所導致的必然結果、他所接受的觀點導致的必然結果 ; 也是那些或真或偽的概念導致的必然結果——他依仗這些概念來理解快樂;也是他所持有的意見導致的必然結果,這些意見被榜樣、教育、日常經驗所強化。(霍爾巴赫)
2007 年
從以上解釋可以作出如下推論,作為國傢的基礎 , 政府治理的終極目的不是用恐懼去統治、或者限制人們,也不是強求人們服從,而是正相反,其終極目的是每個人都從恐懼中解脫,那就是說,在所有可能的方面,每個人都生活在安全中;換而言之 , 就是強化他生存和工作的自然權利。(斯賓諾莎,《神學政治論》)
有兩樣東西使我腦中充滿瞭永遠簇新的、不斷增強的仰慕和敬畏——我頭頂的星空和我心中的道德律法。(康德,《實踐理性批判》)
空間不是主體,存在於空間中的世界也不是主體。(海德格爾 ,《存在與時間》)
因此,公正被看作是所有德行中最高的,…… 就像那句格言所說," 在公正中,所有美德都被總和起來瞭。" 它是完滿的德行和極致的卓越,因為它是完滿德行的實際運用。它是完滿的,因為擁有它的人不但能夠自己運用他的德行,而且能在他與其他人的關系中運用它。(亞裡士多德,《尼各馬可倫理學》)
2008 年
身份和身體是同一的嗎?
在民主體制中,人們似乎可以為所欲為——這是真的;但政治自由根本不在於為所欲為。(孟德斯鳩,《論法的精神》)
沒有一種勢力涉及到所有人,這樣的地方就沒有律法;沒有律法的地方,就沒有不公正。(霍佈斯,《利維坦》)
當其他人的行為和生活跟他所認為的正當相抵牾的時候,一個自由的人必須能容忍這種情況。他必須使自己擺脫這樣一種習慣,那就是隻要有什麼事不讓他感到快活,他就馬上叫警察。(米塞斯,《古典傳統中的自由主義(自由與繁榮的國度)》)
2009 年
I." 那麼,如果我們所做的事有某種目的,而我們隻為瞭這目的本身而期望達到這個目的(我們所期望的所有其他都是為瞭這個目的);如果我們選擇一樣東西,我們的選擇是為瞭這個東西本身,而不是其他別的什麼(如果是為瞭其他別的什麼,那麼,這個過程就會無限延續,我們欲望就會變得空虛、無結果),顯然,這肯 定是善,最高的善。"(亞裡士多德,《尼各馬可倫理學》)
II." 依照理性,隻有一種辦法能使相互關聯的城邦出離這種無法無天的狀態,這種狀態隻會導致戰爭;這辦法就是:像人類個體一樣,這些城邦放棄他們野蠻未開化(無法無天)的自由,使它們自己適應於大傢共同遵守的、強制性的律法;由此形成一種(總在增長的)諸多國傢共存的狀態,這種狀態最終將會囊括世界上所有的國傢。"(康德,《永久和平論》)
III. 要成為藝術品,一件藝術品必須是美的嗎?或者說,一件藝術品可不可以也是醜的?如果第二種情況是可能的,為什麼我們要對這樣一件藝術品感興趣?
IV. 不僅上帝的存在令人生疑,而且有關上帝的理念如此緊致連貫也令人生疑。
(2011-2017 的題目隻有英文版,值得註意的是,出現瞭孔子、莊子等中國哲學傢)
2011 年
1.
"He who learns but does not think is lost; he who thinks but does not learn is in danger."
Confucius, Analects 2.15.
2.
"To a wise man the whole world is open. For the whole cosmos is the fatherland of a good soul."
3.
"Thus the distinct boundaries and offices of reason andof taste are easily ascertained. The former conveys the knowledge of truth and falsehood: thelatter gives the sentiment of beauty and deformity, vice and virtue. The one discoversobjects as they really stand in nature, without addition or diminution: the other has aproductive faculty, and gilding or staining all natural objects with the colours, borrowedfrom internal sentiment, raises in a manner a new creation…"
David Hume, An Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals ( 1751 ) .
4.
"Art is not a copy of the real world. One of the damn things is enough."
Nelson Goodman, Languages of Art ( 1976 ) .
2012 年
1.
"Beauty does not manifest itself, but is revealed by man.If Lin Tang ( orchid pavilion ) and its clear river and slender bamboo had not been described by Wang Xizhi ( 303-361 ) , they would have disappeared in deserted mountains without being known."
Liu Zongyuan ( 773-819 ) .
2.
"The sad truth is that most evil is done by people who never make up their minds to be good or evil."
Hannah Arendt, The Life of the Mind ( 1978 ) .
3.
"If [ an animal ] suffers, there can be no moral justification fordisregarding that suffering, or for refusing to count it equally with the likesuffering of any other being. But the converse of this is also true. If a beingis not capable of suffering, or of enjoyment, there is nothing to take intoaccount."
Peter Singer, Animal Liberation ( 1975 ) .
4.
"And when we question whether the underlying object is suchas it appears, we grant the fact that it appears, and our doubt does notconcern the appearance itself but the account given of that appearance – and that is a different thing from questioning the appearance itself.For example, honey appears to us to be sweet ( and this we grant, for weperceive sweetness through the senses ) , but whether it is also sweet in itsessence is for us a matter of doubt, since this is not an appearance but ajudgment about the appearance."
Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.10 ( 2nd century AD )
2013 年
"In the principle that subjectivity, inwardness, is thetruth, there is comprehended the Socratic wisdom, whose everlasting merit itwas to have become aware of the essential significance of existence, of the factthat the knower is an existing individual. For this reason Socrates was in thetruth by virtue of his ignorance in the highest sense in which this waspossible within paganism."
Søren Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript to the Philosophical Fragments ( 1846 ) .
"A tragedy, then, is the imitation of a noble and completeaction, having a certain magnitude, made in a language spiced up by diversekinds of embellishment brought in separately in the parts of the work. Thisimitation is achieved through characters, not through narration; and, throughpity and fears, it accomplishes the catharsis of such emotions. By ‘ languagespiced up ’ I mean a language with rhythm, harmony and song; by ‘ kinds ofembellishments brought in separately in the parts of the work ’ I mean that someparts are worked out in verse only and others with song."
Aristotle, Poetics,6, 1449 b 24-28.
"A legally unrestricted majority rule, that is, a democracywithout a constitution, can be very formidable in the suppression of the rightsof minorities and very effective in the suffocation of dissent without any useof violence."
Hannah Arendt, On Violence ( 1970 ) .
Zigong asked: "Is there one word that can serve as aprinciple of conduct for life?" Confucius replied, "It is the word shu, or reciprocity:Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you."
To what extent may this formulation of the Golden Rule,which can also be found in other cultures throughout history, be considered asa universal moral principle?
Confucius ( vi-v century bc ) , Analects 15.23
2014 年
Choosing to kill the innocent as a means to your ends is alwaysmurder…Killing the innocent, even if you know as a matter of statisticalcertainty that the things you do involve it, is not necessarily murder….On theother hand, unscrupulousness in considering the possibilities turns it intomurder. – G.E.M. Anscombe, "Mr Truman ’ s Degree", in her Collected Philosophical Papers,vol. III ( Ethics,Religion and Politics ) , Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,1981, p.66
II
The most tantalizing question of all: If a fake is so expert thateven after the most thorough and trust worthy examination its authenticity is still open to doubt, is it or is it not as satisfactory a work of art as if it were unequivocally genuine? – Aline B. Saarinen, New York Times Book Review, July 30, 1961, p.14; cited in Nelson Goodman, Languages of Art,1976, p.99
III
Knowledge is true belief based on argument. — Plato, Theaetetus, 201 c-d
"Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?" — Edmund Gettier, Analysis
IV
Confuciussaid: "Now I understand why the doctrine of the mean can not be put into practice. Clever people, knowing it thoroughly, don ’ t thinkit is practicable, while stupid people, unable to understand it, donot know how to practice it. I also know why the doctrine of the mean can not be popularized. Talented people overdo itwhile unskilled people can not do it." – The Doctrine ofthe Mean, translated by Fu Yunlong, Beijing 1996, pp. 11-12
2015 年
I.
"The adversaries of philosophical literature argue,rightly, that the signification of a novel or a play, or of a poem for thatmatter, cannot be translated into abstract concepts. Otherwise, why construct afictional apparatus around ideas that one could express more economically andclearly in more direct language? The novel is justified only if it is a mode ofcommunication irreducible to any other. While the philosopher and the essayistgive the reader an intellectual reconstruction of their experience, thenovelist claims to reconstruct on an imaginary plane this experience itself asit appears prior to any elucidation." – Philosophical Writings, p. 270.
II.
"Death and life, survival and perishing, success andfailure, poverty and wealth, superiority and inferiority, disgrace and honor,hunger and thirst, cold and heat – these are the transformations of events, theproceedings of fate. …. So there is no need to let them disrupt our harmony." – Zhuangzi, 5:15. InBrook Ziporyn, Zhuangzi:the Essential Writings ( Hackett, 2009 ) .
III.
"Thoughts are neither things of the external world norrepresentations. A third domain has to be recognized. What belongs to thisdomain has in common with representations the fact that it cannot be perceivedby the senses, but with things the fact that it needs no supporting subject, onthe consciousness of which it depends."
IV.
Some philosophers and theologians since Plato have claimedthat the human body is a kind of prison of the soul. Michel Foucault hasrecently suggested that "the soul is a prison of the body" ( Surveiller et punir,p.34 ) . Consider some of the conceptions and arguments thatmight support these opposing views.
2016 年
1."Spoken sounds are symbols of affections in the soul, and written marks symbols of spoken sounds. And just as written marks are not the same for all men, neither are spoken sounds. But what these are in the first place signs of – affections of the soul – are the same for all; and what these affections are likenesses of – actual things – are also the same."
Aristotle, De Interpretatione, 16 a2.
2."Now morally practical reason pronounces in us its irresistible veto: There is to be no war, neither war between you and me in the state of nature nor war between us as states, which, although they are internally in a lawful condition, are still externally ( in relation to one another ) in a lawless condition; for war is not the way in which everyone should seek his rights."
Immanuel Kant, The Metaphysics of Morals ( 1795 ) .
3."One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman."
Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex ( 1949 ) .
4. "Environment is the moment that objectifies human existence; but by so doing, the human understands him/herself. We can call it self-discovery through one ’ s environment."
Tetsuro Watsuji, Fûdo ( 1935 ) .
2017 年
1."Thus no one can act against the sovereign ’ s decisions without prejudicing his authority, but they can think and judge and consequently also speak without any restriction, provided they merely speak or teach by way of reason alone, not by trickery or in anger or from hatred or with the intention of introducing some alteration in the state on their own initiative."
Baruch Spinoza, Theological-Political Treatise ( 1670 ) .
2. "Universal toleration becomes questionable when its rationale no longer prevails, when tolerance is administered to manipulated and indoctrinated individuals who parrot, as their own, the opinion of their masters, for whom heteronomy has become autonomy."
Herbert Marcuse, Repressive Tolerance ( 1965 ) .
3. "In a technological age public professional interaction requires neutrality of thought for effective collaboration and political coexistence. As an administrative attitude neutrality differs from tolerance which is an ethical virtue; but neutrality in the professional sphere is implied and included within the ethical virtue of tolerance. Note that this objective modification of the virtue of tolerance, from patience in regard to other persons ’ defective acts to permission of different types of activity, is an objective modification of virtue in our technological society."
Tomonobu Imamichi, "The Concept of an Eco-ethics and the Development of Moral Thought" ( 1989 )
4. "Another problem with people who fail to examine themselves is that they often prove all too easily influenced. When a talented demagogue addressed the Athenians with moving rhetoric but bad arguments, they were all too ready to be swayed, without ever examining the argument."
Martha C. Nussbaum, Not for Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities ( 2010 ) .
(來源:文匯報等)